Butterfly Gift
Posted in Christmas Gifts on 02/13/2011 08:24 pm by Halloween Ideas for Kids CreatorButterfly Gift
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Tang Dynasty - China Lug Type Butterfly Valve - Lug Butterfly Valve Manufacturer by jekky
History Establishment Main article Transition from Sui to Tang Emperor Taizong r 626 649 receives Ludongzan ambassador of Tibet at his court painted in 641 AD by Yan Liben 600 673 The Li family belonged to the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the reign of the Sui emperors The mothers of both Emperor Yang of Sui r 604 617 and the founding emperor of Tang were sisters making these two emperors of different dynasties first cousins Li Yuan later to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang r 618 626 was the Duke of Tang and former governor of Taiyuan when other government officials were fighting off bandit leaders in the collapse of the Sui Empire caused in part by a failed Korean campaign With prestige and military experience he later rose in rebellion along with his son later Emperor Taizong r 626 649 and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang d 623 who raised her own troops and commanded them In 617 Li Yuan occupied Chang an and acted as regent over a puppet child emperor of the Sui relegating Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor father of the present emperor With the news of Emperor Yang s murder by his general Yuwen Huaji d 619 on June 18 618 Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty the Tang Li Yuan ruled until 626 before being forcefully deposed by his son Li Shimin Prince of Qin Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of 18 had prowess with a bow sword lance and was known for his effective cavalry charges Fighting a numerically superior army he defeated Dou Jiande 573 621 at Luoyang in the Battle of Hulao on May 28 621 In a violent elimination of royal family due to fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushed and killed two of his brothers Li Yuanji b 603 and Crown Prince Li Jiancheng b 589 in the Incident at Xuanwu Gate on July 2 626 Shortly thereafter his father abdicated in his favor and Li Shimin ascended the throne He is conventionally known by his temple name Taizong Although killing two brothers and deposing his father contradicted the Confucian value of filial piety Taizong showed himself to be a capable leader who listened to the advice of the wisest members of his council In 628 Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war and in 629 had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight This was during the campaign against Eastern Tujue a Gktrk khanate that was destroyed after the capture of Jiali Khan Ashini Duobi by the famed Tang military officer Li Jing 571 649 who later became a Chancellor of the Tang Dynasty With this victory the Turks accepted Taizong as their Khagan or Great Khan in addition to his rule as the Son of Heaven Administration and politics Portrait painting of Emperor Yang of Sui commissioned in 643 by Taizong painted by Yan Liben 600 673 Initial reforms Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties Building upon the Sui legal code he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam Korea and Japan The earliest law code to survive though was the one established in the year 653 which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick one hundred blows with a heavy rod exile penal servitude or execution The legal code clearly distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime For example the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming Dynasty 1368 1644 code of 1397 yet there were several revisions in later times such as improved property rights for women during the Song Dynasty 960 1279 The Tang had three departments shng which were obliged to draft review and implement policies respectively There were also six ministries b under the administrations that implemented policy each of which was assigned different tasks These divisional state bureaus included the personnel administration finance rites military justice and public worksn administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing Dynasty 1644 1912 Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han Dynasty 202 BC 220 AD the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Southern and Northern Dynasties The Northern Zhou 557 581 divisional militia fubing was continued by the Tang government along with farmer soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland The equal field system of the Northern Wei Dynasty 386 534 was also kept although there were a few modifications Tang era gilt silver ear cup with flower motif Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court if necessary that their claim to property was legitimate The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han Dynasty while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang an modern Xi an where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters and entertained political emissaries with music sports acrobatic stunts poetry paintings and dramatic theater performances The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in and were renting rooms with merchants Therefore Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital Tang statue of a civil official dressed in Hanfu made of sancai glazed earthenware he wears a tall hat wide sleeved outer garment tied at the waist with a wide belt and rectangular kerchief in front A white inner gown hangs over his square shoes He holds a tablet to his chest preparing to provide a report to his superiors Imperial examinations Following the Sui Dynasty s example the Tang abandoned the nine rank system in favor of a large civil service system Students of Confucian studies were potential candidates for the imperial examinations the graduates of which could be appointed as state bureaucrats in the local provincial and central government There were two types of exams that were given mingjing illuminating the classics examination and jinshi presented scholar examination The mingjing was based upon the Confucian classics and tested the student s knowledge of a broad variety of texts The jinshi tested a student s literary abilities in writing essay style responses to questions on matters of governance and politics as well as their skills in composing poetry Candidates were also judged on their skills of deportment appearance speech and level of skill in calligraphy all of which were subjective criteria that allowed the already wealthy members of society to be chosen over ones of more modest means who were unable to be educated in rhetoric or fanciful writing skills There was a disproportionate number of civil officials coming from aristocratic as opposed to non aristocratic families The exams were open to all male subjects whose fathers were not of the artisan or merchant classes although having wealth or noble status was not a prerequisite in receiving a recommendation In order to promote widespread Confucian education the Tang government established state run schools and issued standard versions of the Five Classics with selected commentaries This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talent into government But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base The Tang law code ensured equal division of inherited property amongst legitimate heirs allowing a bit of social mobility and preventing the families of powerful court officials in becoming landed nobility through primogeniture As it turned out these scholar officials acquired status in their local communities and in family ties while they also shared values that connected them to the imperial court From Tang times until the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 scholar officials functioned often as intermediaries between the grassroots level and the government Yet the potential of a widespread examination system was not fully realized until the Song Dynasty where the merit driven scholar official largely shed his aristocratic habits and defined his social status through the examination system As historian Patricia Ebrey states of the Song period scholar officials The examination system used only on a small scale in Sui and Tang times played a central role in the fashioning of this new elite The early Song emperors concerned above all to avoid domination of the government by military men greatly expanded the civil service examination system and the government school system 36 Nevertheless the Sui and Tang dynasties institutionalized and set the foundations for the civil service system and this new elite class of exam drafted scholar officials Emperor Xuanzong of Tang wearing the robes and the hat of a scholar Religion and politics From the outset religion played a role in Tang politics In his bid for power Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Daoist sage Laozi fl 6th century BC People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was to be selected Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century Buddhism and Daoism were accepted side by side and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang r 712 756 invited monks and clerics of both religions to his court At the same time Xuanzong exalted the ancient Laozi by granting him grand titles wrote commentary on the Daoist Laozi set up a school to prepare candidates for examinations on Daoist scriptures and called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi 671 741 to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought in the year 726 In 742 Emperor Xuanzong personally held the incense burner during the ceremony of the Ceylonese monk Amoghavajra 705 774 reciting mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces While religion played a role in politics politics also played a role in religion In the year 714 Emperor Xuanzong forbade shops and vendors in the city of Chang an to sell copied Buddhist sutras instead giving the Buddhist clergy of the monasteries the sole right to distribute sutras to the laity In the previous year of 713 Emperor Xuanzong had liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang an This monastery collected vast amounts of money silk and treasures through multitudes of anonymous people s repentances leaving the donations on the monastery s premise Although the monastery was generous in donations Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent collected their riches and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries Daoist abbeys and to repair statues halls and bridges in the city Taxes and the census A Man Herding Horses by Han Gan 706 783 a court artist under Xuanzong The Tang Dynasty government attempted to create an accurate census of the size of their empire s population mostly for effective taxation and matters of military conscription for each region The early Tang government established both the grain tax and cloth tax at a relatively low rate for each household under the empire This was meant to encourage households to enroll for taxation and not avoid the authorities thus providing the government with the most accurate estimate possible In the census of 609 the population was tallied by efforts of the government at a size of 9 million households or about 50 million people Again the Tang census of the year 742 approximated the size China s population to about 50 million people Patricia Ebrey writes that even if a rather significant number of people had avoided the registration process of the tax census the population size during the Tang had not grown significantly since the earlier Han Dynasty the census of the year 2 recording a population of roughly 58 million people in China S A M Adshead disagrees estimating that there were about 75 million people by 750 In the Tang census of the year 754 there were 1 859 cities 321 prefectures and 1 538 counties throughout the empire Although there were many large and prominent cities during the Tang the rural and agrarian areas comprised the majority of China s population at some 80 to 90 percent There was also a dramatic migratory shift of the population from northern to southern China as the North held 75 of the overall population at the dynasty s inception but by its end was reduced to 50 Chinese population size would not dramatically increase until the Song Dynasty period where the population doubled to 100 million people due to extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China coupled with rural farmers holding more abu
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